CREATING POSITIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS

Children Respond to a Positive Learning Environment

Students thrive in environments where they feel safe, nurtured and respected. All students, even those who have learning difficulties and extraordinary personal challenges, can do well when they are physically comfortable, mentally motivated and emotionally supported.

Creating a positive learning environment will optimize student learning, help you build a cohesive classroom community and create a pleasant work environment for both you and your students.

It is especially critical that you work proactively to create a positive learning environment when you have students who are foster children, have suffered abuse or neglect, have transferred schools multiple times, come from disadvantaged backgrounds or have severe academic, social or emotional difficulties.

Follow These 10 Steps

1. Get to know each student as a person as soon as possible after meeting them. Have each student complete a survey and/or write a biography. This can give you valuable information that will help you find out who he or she is as a person and how you can best teach and support them.
2. Spend time with students individually every day. It’s crucial to make personal connections with your students. They need to know they are important to you.
3. Fill your classroom with positive messages and quotes. Make it impossible for students in your classroom to not feel that they are each destined for greatness.
4. Provide frequent positive feedback. Let students know that they are doing a good job. Tell them that you notice their efforts and appreciate their hard work. Praise is a powerful positive motivational tool.
5. Give students outlets for expression. Create a special place to display student art and writing. Provide a box for students to place slips of paper with concerns written on them. Set up a mailbox where students can send you either signed or anonymous notes about classroom issues.
6. Conduct a daily community meeting with students.
7. Allow students to make appointments with you to talk privately about overwhelming problems, issues and dilemmas.
8. Make it clear that everyone in your classroom is to conduct themselves in a respectable manner, treat others with respect and respect the property of others.
9. Make discipline about accountability and growth instead of punishment. Give students who exhibit inappropriate behaviors a place to cool off and calm down. Have them reflect about the unacceptable behavior they engaged in, discuss other ways they could have handled the situation and commit to taking action steps to insure that it will not happen again.
10. Do everything you can to make the physical environment of your classroom as comfortable and cheerful as possible. Provide floor cushions, beanbag chairs and inspiring artwork. Clean out your attic, basement or garage. You will probably find tons of items to enliven your classroom collecting dust in those spaces. Local businesses and organizations may be willing to donate furnishings and other materials to help you create a positive learning environment.

Create a Positive Learning Environment

I think that we can all relate to sitting in a class trying not to nod off or listening to an instructor who is brilliant in a particular field but who has no ability to engage students. As adult learners this is often something that we can overcome through self-motivation. We can be motivated by genuine interest in the subject or by the urge to get enough credits to graduate – either way works.

Younger students, however, often do not have a high degree of self-motivation – they are in your class, most likely, because their parents enrolled them. In these types of cases it is up to you, the teacher, to create a positive classroom environment that is going to engage and motivate your students externally.

Why?

Creating a positive learning environment in your classroom will allow your students to feel comfortable, safe and engaged – something that all students deserve. In a classroom where values and roles remain constant and focus is placed on the positive aspects of learning, students will be more open to actively participating in class.

If they are given the opportunity to become responsible for their own learning, students will be more likely to benefit from the lesson, and thus more likely to be self-motivated. This should be a primary goal for all teachers, since lack of motivation is often the root of disciplinary issues.

What IS a positive classroom environment?

A number of factors contribute to a positive learning environment for your students. Three of the most important ones are:

Core Ideals

Each teacher will have different standards and values in the classroom, but the only universally important element is that these remain consistent so that students know what to expect and what is expected of them.

It is important that your students know that theirs is an inclusive, respectful, community-oriented environment. To build community and an inclusive atmosphere in the classroom, one idea is to involve students in taking attendance, using photos of each student as a supplement to the boring old ‘HERE’ style of attendance-taking – check out the following link for a bit more detail and put your own twist on it: http://www.atozteacherstuff.com/pages/578.shtml

It is also important to remember that, more than anything else, students will emulate your actions in the classroom. Therefore, it is very important to work well within your community – with your partner teachers as well as other members of the staff.

Ambience

This is an extremely important – and fun – part of creating a positive learning environment. Your classroom should be a dynamic and engaging place to be for your students. What would you think if you walked into an elementary classroom with nothing on the walls? Weird….

So have fun, but keep your décor related to both your particular students and to the topic being taught. In an ESL classroom, keeping it related to the subject matter is pretty easy, since almost anything in English counts, but keeping it related to your students requires that you know a bit about them.

If you are afforded your own classroom, this is much easier than if you have to go from class to class – although it’s still possible. In your own classroom, reserve a portion of the wall for each class that you teach. This allows them to feel that they belong in the classroom. You can also use the walls to re-enforce your core ideals, such as community, by posting photos of students, group photos and student work.

If you have to move from room to room, have a portable poster for each group you teach, and this will establish a similar sense of belonging. Keep their past projects so that they know that their work is valued.

Another aspect of ambience in the classroom is how it is physically set up. Again, this should reflect your core ideals. Desks arranged in rows does not allow for a very communal atmosphere, so you may want to come in just before your class and rearrange the desks in a circle, groups or pairs. Don’t forget to move them back when you’re finished in the room!

Expectations

If you establish your expectations for student behaviour early and keep them consistent, you may be able to avoid many classroom management issues.

Laying down the ground rules early in your relationship with a class is quintessential to your success as a teacher. Involve your students in this to be sure that they are aware of the rules and the consequences. This is another great way to add to the ambience of your classroom – post the ground rules and always lean towards positive, rather than negative, re-enforcement of them. Posting something on the wall when a student doesn’t follow the rules will likely affect the entire class in a negative way, but posting something for each student that did adhere to the rules will do the opposite.

Relativity

The role of the teacher goes both ways – you are responsible for imparting knowledge to your students, but you will be a more successful teacher if you also allow yourself to learn from them as well. This is particularly true when you are teaching ESL in a foreign country. Your students can teach you multitudes about their culture.

Learning about your students will allow you to keep the material and classroom activities relative to their interests. I taught in South Korea during the World Cup, so an easy – and usually accurate – default for me was soccer. Teaching a difficult concept with a topic that your students are interested in will result in a higher rate of retention.

The Wrap Up

Putting together a classroom with the above ideas in mind will create an environment where your students will thrive. They will feel involved and responsible for their own learning as well as being comfortable enough to actively participate in individual and group activities. Your positive re-enforcement will allow them to build self-esteem and be more successful students, which of course, makes you a successful teacher.

Whether you're getting ready for your first day or if you're looking for a change of pace to help change the dynamic in your class it is important to give thought to how your class is set up.

Classroom Set Up

The physical set up of your class plays an important part of how your class will run and how you pro-actively contribute to the positive energy of the classroom.

Here are some simple ideas that will help you make your classroom a productive place:

• FRONT AND CENTER
• don't hide in the corner. Younger elementary students actually do not associate you being there unless they can see you. Students need to see you at the front of the room in plain view to remind them that the Commander-in-Chief is right there. This is war. You have to fight to keep control of your classroom.
• Wall space 
• covering the walls with pictures and alphabet and numbers and famous people is important but don't let these pictures change colour on the wall. CHANGE THEM. Be creative and put thought into your decorations and your students will respond with creativity and energy in turn.
• Assignment Board 
• have a spot on the wall for you to hang student assignments. They need to see that their work is appreciated and that it will be displayed. You will be amazed at the different quality you'll get when students know it's going to the wall.
• Open Space 
• this is a critical function to elementary or primary classes because you'll be spending a lot more time on the floor. Be sure that you have some comfy open space for students to sit down with you and do activities.
• Reading Lounge 
• get students to bring in their own pillow for the reading lounge. Here you can set up a corner of the room or use the open space in the front to read to students and talk about the stories you are reading. Make sure the cases are machine washable and be sure to wash them regularly. 

 REFERENCES

http://www.brighthubeducation.com/classroom-management/13907-creating-a-positive-learning-environment/

http://www.footprintsrecruiting.com/for-teachers/teachers-playground/tips-for-teachers/563-setting-up-your-classroom

ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT

With regards the learner, assessment is aimed at providing information that will help make decisions concerning remediation, enrichment, selection, exceptionality, progress and certification. With regards teaching, assessment provides information regarding achievement of objectives, the effectiveness of teaching methods and learning materials

FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT

Assessment can be done at various times throughout the school year and a comprehensive assessment plan will include both formative and summative assessment. The point at which assessment occurs and the aim of assessing distinguishes these two categories of assessment.

Formative Assessment:

Formative assessment is often done at the beginning of during the school year, thus providing the opportunity for immediate evidence for student learning in a particular subject area or at a particular point in a programme. Classroom assessment is one of the most common formative assessment techniques. The purpose of this technique is to improve quality of student learning and should not be evaluative or involve grading students.

	Formative Assessment	Summative Assessment
Timing	Conducted throughout the teaching-learning process	Conducted at the end of a teaching-learning phases (e.g. end of semester or year)
Method	Paper & pencil tests, observations, quizzes, exercises, practical sessions administered to the group and individually	Paper & pencil tests, oral tests administered to the group
Aim	· To assess progress and recommend remedial action for non-achievement of objectives ·  Remediation or enrichment or reteach the topic	· Grading to determine if the programme was successful. · To certify students and improve the curriculum
Example	Quizzes, essays, diagnostic tests, lab reports and anecdotal records	Final exams, national examinations, qualifying tests.

           Figure 1.7 Differences between Formative and Summative Assessment

In formative assessment the teacher compares the performance of a student to the performance other students in the class and not all students in the same year. Usually, a small section of the content is tested to determine if the objectives have been met. Formative assessment is action-oriented and forms the basis for improvement of instructional methods.  

For example, if a teacher observes that some students do not grasp a concept, he or she may design a different activity or use a different instructional strategy. Likewise, students can monitor their progress with periodic quizzes and performance tasks. The results of formative assessments are used to modify and validate instruction. In short, formative assessments are on-going and include reviews, and observations of what is happening in the classroom.

Summative Assessment:

Summative assessment is comprehensive in nature; provides accountability and is used to check the level of learning at the end of the programme (which may be at the end of the semester, year or after two years). For example, after three years in secondary school, students take a National Examination which is summative in nature since it is based on the cumulative learning experiences of students. Summative assessments are typically used to evaluate the effectiveness of an instructional programme at the end of an academic year or at a pre-determined time. 

The goal of summative assessment is to make a judgment of student competency–after an instructional phase is complete. For example, in Malaysia national examinations are administered at the end of 6 years of primary school; at the end of lower secondary school and at the end of upper secondary school. It is a summative assessment to determine each student's acquisition of several subject areas of 2 to 3 years coverage of content. Summative evaluations are used to determine if students have mastered specific competencies and letter grades may be are assigned to assess learner achievement. See Figure 1.8 which lists the differences between the two types of tests.

NORM REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTS 

There are two types of tests depending on how its results are interpreted and used. Traditionally there are two types of tests called Norm-Referenced Tests and Criterion-referenced Tests.

Norm-Referenced Tests:

The major reason for norm-referenced tests is to classify students. These tests are designed to highlight differences between and among students to produce dependable rank order of students across a continuum of achievement from high-achievers to low achievers (Anastasi, 1988). With norm-referenced tests, a representative group of students is given the test and their scores form the norm after having gone through a complex process of administration and analysis. 

Anyone taking a norm-referenced test can compare his or her score against the norm. For example, a student who obtained a score of 70 on a norm-referenced will not mean much until it is compared to the norm. When compared to the norm, her score is the 80^th percentile which means that she performed as well or better than 80% of students in the norm group. This type of information can be useful for deciding whether or not students need remedial assistance or is a candidate for the gifted programme. However, the score gives little information about what the student actually knows or can do. A major criticism of norm-referenced tests is that they tend to focus on assessing low level basic skills. If it measures achievement, norm-referenced tests tend to measure a sample of the academic content taught in schools nationwide.

Criterion-Referenced Tests:

Criterion-referenced tests determine what students can or cannot do, and not how they compare to others (Anastasi, 1988). Criterion-referenced tests report how well students are doing relative to a pre-determined performance level on a specified set of educational goals or outcomes included in the curriculum. Criterion-referenced tests are used when teachers wish to know how well students have learned the knowledge and skills which they are expected to have mastered. This information may be used as one piece of information to determine how well the student is learning the desired curriculum and how well the school is teaching that curriculum. Criterion-referenced tests give detailed information about how well a student has performed on each of the educational goals or learning outcomes included on that test. For instance, a criterion-referenced test score might describe which arithmetic operations a student can perform or the level of reading difficulty experienced. See Figure 1.8 which lists the differences between the two-types of tests.

	Norm-Referenced Test	Criterion-Referenced Tests
Aim	·     Compare a student’s performance with other students ·     Select students for certification	·     Compare a student’s performance against some criteria (e.g. learning outcomes) ·     Extent to which student has acquired the knowledge or skill ·     Improve teaching & learning
Types of Questions	Questions from simple to difficult	Questions of nearly similar difficulty relating to the criteria
Reporting of results	Grades are assigned	No grades are assigned (whether skill or knowledge achieved or not
Content coverage	Wide content coverage	Specific aspects of the content
Examples	UPSR, PMR, SPM national examinations, end of semester examinations, end of year examinations	Class tests, exercises and assignments

             Figure 1.8 Differences between Norm-Referenced and Criterion Tests

REFERENCE

http://www.aeu.edu.my/

APPLYING EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES AND STRATEGIES

What are instructional strategies?

Instructional strategies are methods that are used in the lesson to ensure that the sequence or delivery of instruction helps students learn.

What does effective mean?

The term "effective" means that student performance improves when the instructional strategies are used. The strategies were identified in studies conducted using research procedures and guidelines that ensure confidence about the results. In addition, several studies exist for each strategy with an adequate sample size and the use of treatment and control groups to generalize to the target population. This allows teachers to be confident about how to apply the strategies in their classrooms.

Strategies to use in designing effective lessons

These six strategies have been proven to work with diverse groups of learners (Kameenui & Carnine, Effective Teaching Strategies that Accommodate Diverse Learners, 1998). All students, and particularly those with disabilities, benefit when teachers incorporate these strategies into their instruction on a regular basis.

1. Focus on essentials.
2. Make linkages obvious and explicit.
3. Prime background knowledge.
4. Provide temporary support for learning.
5. Use conspicuous steps and strategies.
6. Review for fluency and generalization.

1. Focus on essentials

Identify important principles, key concepts, and big ideas from the curriculum that apply across major themes in the subject content. 

Techniques:

• Big Ideas: Instruction is organized around the major themes that run through a subject area. This helps students make the connections between concepts and learn to use higher order thinking skills. Kameenui and Carnine (1998) identify these examples of big ideas for social studies:
• problem-solution-effect
• success of group efforts is related to motivation, leadership, resources, and capability
• Graphic organizers: Important ideas and details are laid out graphically to help students see connections between ideas. Semantic webs and concept maps are examples of graphic organizers.
• Thematic instruction: Instructional units combine subject areas to make themes and essential ideas more apparent and meaningful. Lessons and assignments can be integrated or coordinated across classes.
• Planning routines: The Center for Research on Learning at the University of Kansas website (go to http://www.kucrl.org/sim/content.shtml) has developed Content Enhancement Routines, systematic routines that include graphic organizers to help teachers plan a course, unit, or lesson around the essentials or big ideas. Teachers guide students to use the organizer to monitor their learning.

2.Make linkages obvious and explicit

Actively help students understand how key concepts across the curriculum relate to each other as you are teaching.

Techniques:

• Give clear verbal explanations and use visual displays (such as flow charts, diagrams, or graphic organizers) to portray key concepts and relationships.
• Help students use techniques like outlining or mind mapping to show connections among concepts.

3.Prime background knowledge

Connect new information or skills to what students have already learned. Provide additional instruction or support to students who lack necessary background knowledge.

Techniques:

• Ask questions to prompt student recall of relevant prior knowledge.
• Make comparisons between the new concept and things students already know.
• Relate the topic to current or past events that are familiar to students.
• Relate the concept to a fictional story or scenario known to the students.
• Use instructional materials that provide easy access to critical background knowledge.

4.Provide temporary support for learning

Provide support (scaffolding) while students are learning new knowledge and skills, gradually reducing the level of support as students move toward independence. 

Techniques:

• Provide verbal or written prompts to remind students of key information or processes.
• Physically assist and guide a student when learning a new motor skill, such as cutting.
• Provide study or note-taking guides to support learning from text or lectures.
• Use commercial materials that have been specifically designed to incorporate supports for learning.
• Use mnemonics to help students remember multiple steps in a procedure.

5.Use conspicuous steps and strategies

Teach students to follow a specific set of procedures to solve problems or use a process. 

Techniques:

• Model the steps in the strategy, using a think-aloud process.
• Name the strategy and give students prompts for using it such as posting steps on the board, providing an example of a problem with the strategy steps labeled, or using memory strategies like mnemonics to help student recall the steps.
• Prompt students to use the strategy in practice situations.
• Reduce prompting as students become proficient in applying the strategy.
• Explicitly teach students the organizational structure of text and prompt its use.

6.Review for fluency and generalization

Give students many opportunities to practice what they have learned and receive feedback on their performance to ensure knowledge is retained over time and can be applied in different situations.

Techniques:

• Use multiple reviews of concepts and skills.
• Give students specific feedback about what they are doing well or need to change.
• Give students enough practice to master skills.
• Distribute reviews over time to insure proficiency is maintained.
• Provide review in different contexts to enhance generalization of learning.
• Provide cumulative review that addresses content learned throughout the year.

Ten Effective Research-Based Instructional Strategies

Marzano1 (2000) identified ten research-based, effective instructional strategies that cut across all content areas and all grade levels. Each requires specific implementation techniques to produce the effect sizes reported, so their use requires learning to use them correctly.

1.    Vocabulary. Research indicates that student achievement will increase by 12 percentile points when students are taught 10-12 words a week; 33 percentile points when vocabulary is focused on specific words important to what students are learning. Requires specific approaches. (Effect size=0.95 or 32 percentile points)

2.    Comparing, contrasting, classifying, analogies, and metaphors. These processes are connected as each requires students to analyze two or more elements in terms of their similarities and differences in one or more characteristics. This strategy has the greatest effect size on student learning. Techniques vary by age level. (Effect size=1.61 or 45 percentile points)

3.    Summarizing and note-taking. To summarize is to fill in missing information and translate information into a synthesized, brief form. Note-taking is the process of students’ using notes as a work in progress and/or teachers’ preparing notes to guide instruction. (Effect size=1.0 or 34 percentile points)

4.     Reinforcing effort and giving praise. Simply teaching many students that added effort will pay off in terms of achievement actually increases student achievement more than techniques for time management and comprehension of new material. Praise, when recognizing students for legitimate achievements, is also effective. (Effect size=0.8 or 29 percentile points)

5.    Homework and practice. These provide students with opportunities to deepen their understanding and skills relative to presented content. Effectiveness depends on quality and frequency of teacher feedback, among other factors. (Effect size=0.77 or 28 percentile points)

6.    Nonlinguistic representation. Knowledge is generally stored in two forms— linguistic form and imagery. Simple yet powerful non-linguistic instructional techniques such as graphic organizers, pictures and pictographs, concrete representations, and creating mental images improve learning. (Effect size=0.59 or 22 percentile points)

7.     Cooperative learning. Effective when used right; ineffective when overused. Students still need time to practice skills and processes independently. (Effect size=0.74 or 27 percentile points)

8.    Setting objectives and providing feedback. Goal setting is the process of establishing direction and purpose. Providing frequent and specific feedback related to learning objectives is one of the most effective strategies to increase student achievement. (Effect size=0.61 or 23 percentile points)

9.    Generating and testing hypotheses. Involves students directly in applying knowledge to a specific situation. Deductive thinking (making a prediction about a future action or event) is more effective than inductive thinking (drawing conclusions based on information known or presented.) Both are valuable. (Effect size=0.61 or 23 percentile points)

10.  Cues, questions, and advanced organizers. These strategies help students retrieve what they already know on a topic. Cues are straight-forward ways of activating prior knowledge; questions help students to identify missing information;

REFERENCES

http://www.pkrnet.com/newmex/pdf/Marzano10Strat.pdf

http://www.cpt.fsu.edu/eseold/in/strmain.html