APPLYING EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES AND STRATEGIES

What are instructional strategies?

Instructional strategies are methods that are used in the lesson to ensure that the sequence or delivery of instruction helps students learn.

What does effective mean?

The term "effective" means that student performance improves when the instructional strategies are used. The strategies were identified in studies conducted using research procedures and guidelines that ensure confidence about the results. In addition, several studies exist for each strategy with an adequate sample size and the use of treatment and control groups to generalize to the target population. This allows teachers to be confident about how to apply the strategies in their classrooms.

Strategies to use in designing effective lessons

These six strategies have been proven to work with diverse groups of learners (Kameenui & Carnine, Effective Teaching Strategies that Accommodate Diverse Learners, 1998). All students, and particularly those with disabilities, benefit when teachers incorporate these strategies into their instruction on a regular basis.

1. Focus on essentials.
2. Make linkages obvious and explicit.
3. Prime background knowledge.
4. Provide temporary support for learning.
5. Use conspicuous steps and strategies.
6. Review for fluency and generalization.

1. Focus on essentials

Identify important principles, key concepts, and big ideas from the curriculum that apply across major themes in the subject content. 

Techniques:

• Big Ideas: Instruction is organized around the major themes that run through a subject area. This helps students make the connections between concepts and learn to use higher order thinking skills. Kameenui and Carnine (1998) identify these examples of big ideas for social studies:
• problem-solution-effect
• success of group efforts is related to motivation, leadership, resources, and capability
• Graphic organizers: Important ideas and details are laid out graphically to help students see connections between ideas. Semantic webs and concept maps are examples of graphic organizers.
• Thematic instruction: Instructional units combine subject areas to make themes and essential ideas more apparent and meaningful. Lessons and assignments can be integrated or coordinated across classes.
• Planning routines: The Center for Research on Learning at the University of Kansas website (go to http://www.kucrl.org/sim/content.shtml) has developed Content Enhancement Routines, systematic routines that include graphic organizers to help teachers plan a course, unit, or lesson around the essentials or big ideas. Teachers guide students to use the organizer to monitor their learning.

2.Make linkages obvious and explicit

Actively help students understand how key concepts across the curriculum relate to each other as you are teaching.

Techniques:

• Give clear verbal explanations and use visual displays (such as flow charts, diagrams, or graphic organizers) to portray key concepts and relationships.
• Help students use techniques like outlining or mind mapping to show connections among concepts.

3.Prime background knowledge

Connect new information or skills to what students have already learned. Provide additional instruction or support to students who lack necessary background knowledge.

Techniques:

• Ask questions to prompt student recall of relevant prior knowledge.
• Make comparisons between the new concept and things students already know.
• Relate the topic to current or past events that are familiar to students.
• Relate the concept to a fictional story or scenario known to the students.
• Use instructional materials that provide easy access to critical background knowledge.

4.Provide temporary support for learning

Provide support (scaffolding) while students are learning new knowledge and skills, gradually reducing the level of support as students move toward independence. 

Techniques:

• Provide verbal or written prompts to remind students of key information or processes.
• Physically assist and guide a student when learning a new motor skill, such as cutting.
• Provide study or note-taking guides to support learning from text or lectures.
• Use commercial materials that have been specifically designed to incorporate supports for learning.
• Use mnemonics to help students remember multiple steps in a procedure.

5.Use conspicuous steps and strategies

Teach students to follow a specific set of procedures to solve problems or use a process. 

Techniques:

• Model the steps in the strategy, using a think-aloud process.
• Name the strategy and give students prompts for using it such as posting steps on the board, providing an example of a problem with the strategy steps labeled, or using memory strategies like mnemonics to help student recall the steps.
• Prompt students to use the strategy in practice situations.
• Reduce prompting as students become proficient in applying the strategy.
• Explicitly teach students the organizational structure of text and prompt its use.

6.Review for fluency and generalization

Give students many opportunities to practice what they have learned and receive feedback on their performance to ensure knowledge is retained over time and can be applied in different situations.

Techniques:

• Use multiple reviews of concepts and skills.
• Give students specific feedback about what they are doing well or need to change.
• Give students enough practice to master skills.
• Distribute reviews over time to insure proficiency is maintained.
• Provide review in different contexts to enhance generalization of learning.
• Provide cumulative review that addresses content learned throughout the year.

Ten Effective Research-Based Instructional Strategies

Marzano1 (2000) identified ten research-based, effective instructional strategies that cut across all content areas and all grade levels. Each requires specific implementation techniques to produce the effect sizes reported, so their use requires learning to use them correctly.

1.    Vocabulary. Research indicates that student achievement will increase by 12 percentile points when students are taught 10-12 words a week; 33 percentile points when vocabulary is focused on specific words important to what students are learning. Requires specific approaches. (Effect size=0.95 or 32 percentile points)

2.    Comparing, contrasting, classifying, analogies, and metaphors. These processes are connected as each requires students to analyze two or more elements in terms of their similarities and differences in one or more characteristics. This strategy has the greatest effect size on student learning. Techniques vary by age level. (Effect size=1.61 or 45 percentile points)

3.    Summarizing and note-taking. To summarize is to fill in missing information and translate information into a synthesized, brief form. Note-taking is the process of students’ using notes as a work in progress and/or teachers’ preparing notes to guide instruction. (Effect size=1.0 or 34 percentile points)

4.     Reinforcing effort and giving praise. Simply teaching many students that added effort will pay off in terms of achievement actually increases student achievement more than techniques for time management and comprehension of new material. Praise, when recognizing students for legitimate achievements, is also effective. (Effect size=0.8 or 29 percentile points)

5.    Homework and practice. These provide students with opportunities to deepen their understanding and skills relative to presented content. Effectiveness depends on quality and frequency of teacher feedback, among other factors. (Effect size=0.77 or 28 percentile points)

6.    Nonlinguistic representation. Knowledge is generally stored in two forms— linguistic form and imagery. Simple yet powerful non-linguistic instructional techniques such as graphic organizers, pictures and pictographs, concrete representations, and creating mental images improve learning. (Effect size=0.59 or 22 percentile points)

7.     Cooperative learning. Effective when used right; ineffective when overused. Students still need time to practice skills and processes independently. (Effect size=0.74 or 27 percentile points)

8.    Setting objectives and providing feedback. Goal setting is the process of establishing direction and purpose. Providing frequent and specific feedback related to learning objectives is one of the most effective strategies to increase student achievement. (Effect size=0.61 or 23 percentile points)

9.    Generating and testing hypotheses. Involves students directly in applying knowledge to a specific situation. Deductive thinking (making a prediction about a future action or event) is more effective than inductive thinking (drawing conclusions based on information known or presented.) Both are valuable. (Effect size=0.61 or 23 percentile points)

10.  Cues, questions, and advanced organizers. These strategies help students retrieve what they already know on a topic. Cues are straight-forward ways of activating prior knowledge; questions help students to identify missing information;

REFERENCES

http://www.pkrnet.com/newmex/pdf/Marzano10Strat.pdf

http://www.cpt.fsu.edu/eseold/in/strmain.html