BEHAVIORISM

  PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING

            Reinforcement can be defined as any event that increases the probability of a response. Skinner distinguished between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement, as well as punishment.    

Positive Reinforcement:

 A positive reinforcer is a stimulus that increases the probability of a particular behaviour occurring in the future. For example, water is a positive reinforcer for getting a thirsty organism to behave in a particular way. The term reward is sometimes used as a synonym for positive reinforcement (Huitt and Hummel, 1997.)

Negative Reinforcement:

 A negative reinforcer is a stimulus when removed increases the probability of a particular behaviour occurring in the future. Refer to Skinner’s Box: Figure 2.4. An electric was introduced and the rat jumped around. However, when it pressed the bar, the electric shock was switched off. Guess what happened! The rat pressed the bar (behaviour) more frequently to avoid the pain or discomfort from the electric shock.

Punishment:  

Punishment is not the same as negative reinforcement. The objective of negative reinforcement is to increase the probability of a particular behaviour occurring. Punishment has the opposite effect; it decreases the probability of a behaviour occurring. For example, if the rat is given an electric shock every time it presses the bar (behaviour), the frequency of the behaviour occurring will be reduced and finally diminish

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT

The reinforcement theory was taken a step further by introducing variation in the typical operant conditioning situation (Huitt and Hummel, 1998). What will happen when the schedule of reinforcement is varied according to time or frequency? For example, instead of rewarding a particular behaviour every time it occurs, the behaviour is rewarded every 2 minutes; i.e. reinforcement is scheduled or predetermined. Many different reinforcement schedules have been studied, but most common are as follows:

• FIXED RATIO (FR): According to this schedule, reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses (behaviour). The ratio 5:1 means that after every 5 times the response (behaviour) is exhibited it is reinforced (rewarded) once. For example, say the rat presses the bar 3 times, it gets a goodie. Or 5 times or 20 times. It is like the ‘piece rate’ method in the clothing industry. You get paid so much for to many shirts.

• VARIABLE RATIO (VR): This schedule is similar to the Fixed Ratio. The difference is that the ratio is not fixed but variable. In other words, the ratio is changed according to the responses. For example, you may start with reinforcing every 3 times the response (behaviour) is exhibited; than every 5 times the response (behaviour) is exhibited and so on.

• FIXED INTERVAL (FI): According to this schedule, reinforcement (reward) is given at the specified time. For example, if the time is fixed as 2 minutes; the behaviour or response is reinforced (rewarded) after 2 minutes. No further reinforcement will occur until 2 minutes has passed. Once it has elapsed, the first response (behaviour) made will be reinforced.

• VARIABLE INTERVAL (VI): This schedule is similar to the Fixed Internal.

The difference is that the interval is not fixed but variable. In other words, the interval may be changed according to the responses. For example, you may start with reinforcing every 20 seconds the response (behaviour) is exhibited; than every 30 seconds the response (behaviour) is exhibited and so on.

SHAPING BEHAVIOUR

Using a schedule of reinforcement, complex behaviours of various organisms can be shaped. Shaping is a method of successive approximation which involves reinforcing behaviour that is vaguely similar to the behaviour desired (Skinner, 1954). The procedure of shaping involves administering rewards for response that are not the required terminal response but that approximate what the experimenter desires. An organism is reinforced every time it makes a move in the desired direction until it has learned the desired response, and then not reinforcing it again (Skinner,  .  By reinforcing only successively closer approximations to the desired behaviour, it is possible to train an organism to engage in behaviour so complex that would never ordinarily appear in the organism’s repertoire.

APPLYING OPERANT CONDITIONING IN THE CLASSROOM

Biehler and Snowman (1986) in their book Psychology Applied to Teaching, suggested the following classroom practices based on the principles of operant conditioning.

• When students are dealing with factual material, do your best to give FEEDBACK frequently, specifically and quickly.
• After giving a problem, go over the correct answer immediately afterward.
• Have pupils team up and give each other feedback.
• Meet with students in small groups so that you can give each pupil more individual feedback.
• When you assign reading or give a lecture or demonstration, have a short self-corrected quiz or an informal Q&A session immediately afterward.

• When older students are dealing with complex and meaningful material, DELAYED FEEDBACK may be more appropriate
• Hand back and discuss all exams even though they may have sat for the exam two weeks ago.
• Give comments are papers written by students besides a grade or marks.
• After having submitted an assignment you could ask your students the following: “If you realised after you completed your work that you had made a mistake, make a note of it and mention how you would correct it if you were to do the assignment over again now. Then we can see if your evaluation agrees with mine”.

• Use SEVERAL KINDS OF REINFORCERS so that each retains its effectiveness.
• When a student gives a correct answer, makes a good point in class discussion or doe something helpful, say things like: “Good”. “That’s right”. “Terrific”. “Great”. “Very interesting point”. “I hadn’t thought of that”. “That was big help”.
• Walk over to stand near and smile encouragingly at a pupil who seems to be working industriously.

• Use awareness of EXTINCTION to reduce the frequency of undesirable forms of behaviour.
• If a student exhibits undesirable behaviour to arouse attention, pay no attention and continue with the lesson.
• If a student says something undesirable in class discussion, do not comment, and immediately call on someone else.

• Using different SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT, encourage persistent and permanent learning.
• When students first try a new skill or type of learning, praise almost any genuine attempt, even though it may be inaccurate. Then, as they become more skilful, reserve your praise only for correct and accurate answers.
• Avoid a set pattern or predictable way of commenting on student work.
• Make favourable remarks at unpredictable intervals.

• Use reinforcement to MOTIVATE students to learn material that is not intrinsically interesting.
• Announce to students that if they complete the ‘boring’ task, they will be rewarded with something they like to do. e.g. read a book of their choice, work on an art or craft project, work on homework for another class.
• Make a contract with students on the amount of work to be completed before they are entitled to the reward.
• Withhold reinforcement and calling attention to rewards that will follow completion of a task. If that does not work, consider the possibility of taking away a privilege or resorting to punishment.

• Use the principles of PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION. Skinner argued that in a typical classroom situation, a teacher cannot supply reinforcement quickly enough or often enough. He recommended the use of teaching machines or programmed instruction.
• State clearly what is to learned i.e. the terminal behaviour (e.g. to be able to compare X and Y)
• Break down the facts, concepts and principles and arrange them in a sequence designed to lead the student to the desired end result.
• These series of small linear steps or frames are written to maximise the likelihood that students will supply the correct answer for each frame. When students do supply the correct answer for one step or frame, they are reinforced by discovering they are right and motivated to move on to the next.

• Use programmed approaches to teaching describing terminal behaviour, organising what is to be learned, and providing feedback.
• Describe the terminal behaviour using instructional objectives or learning outcomes (e.g. using Bloom’s Taxonomy of Objectives as a guide).
• If appropriate, arrange the material to be learned into a series of steps into an outline of points (e.g. when giving a lecture or demonstration give students an organised list of points to be covered)
• Provide feedback (e.g. quizzes with feedback on correct answers)

 Reference: Asianonlineuniversity